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Gaming Research Uncategorized

The Research Supporting Digital Gaming and Learning Part 2: The Gamer’s Gains: Evidence of Efficacy

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By Ryan L. Schaaf

Preface

There are literally thousands of research studies, books, web articles, and news reports examining the effectiveness of games during the learning process. Some of these sources are research in nature; some are based on firsthand experiences or accounts, while others are formed on opinions or even sophistry. The truth is the analysis of gaming’s efficacy during the learning process are still evolving.

As often as we witness the digital generation’s love of games and the amazing societal, technological, and cultural impact they usher in, there remains the need for evidence of their success as learning tools, or even learning environments.

There is a substantial amount of research on gaming and learning – so much so that this post will be delivered in two parts. In the first part, entitled The Gamer’s Brain, readers examined what scientists, researchers, and educators have observed about the relationship between digital game play and the human brain. In this installment, entitled The Gamer’s Gains: Evidence of Efficacy, examines many of the recent studies and analyses that demonstrate the potential for learning with the use of digital games. The links and citations for each study, report, or data source will be listed below and cited within each snippet.

“Digital games have the potential to transform information for its players into valuable knowledge and experiences.”

Knowledge Gains

In a meta-analysis (an analysis of many studies) conducted in the Journal of Educational Psychology, Wouters and colleagues (2013) found that training with serious games is more effective for developing knowledge, knowledge retention, and cognitive skills than other instructional methods such as lectures, reading, drill, and practice, or hypertext learning environments. These results were further supported by Vogel and colleagues (2006) in a similar analysis as they observed higher cognitive gains in simulations or games as they did in traditional instructional techniques. Similar knowledge gains were evident in analyses conducted by Wolfe (1997), Sitzmann (2011), and Ke (2009). Digital games have the potential to transform information for its players into valuable knowledge and experiences.

“Game-based learning motivates and engages learners just as much, if not more, than other tried and true instructional approaches.”

Motivation to Learn

Student motivation is another powerful attribute that makes learning through gameplay that much more alluring. Thangagiri and Naganathan’s (2016) study explored if games affected student motivation. Their data analyses disclosed that using a gaming approach was both more active in stimulating students’ knowledge and more motivational than a non-online gaming approach. In another qualitative study conducted by Yu and Hsaio (2011), students’ learning motivation was a significant factor in knowledge acquisition during gameplay. These results were further supported by another participatory action research study conducted with learners ages 8 to 10 years of age. The data suggests digital game-based learning were as effective in the classroom as other research-based instructional strategies when measuring student motivation and time-on-task behavior. (Schaaf, 2012) So, regarding instructional strategies in a learning environment, game-based learning motivates and engages learners just as much, if not more, than other tried and true instructional approaches.

Attention, Attention!

The attentional benefits resulting from the use of digital games seems to be the most research-supported. Many studies performed by researchers such as Bavelier, Green, Dye, and others showed improvements in attention, optimization of attentional resources, integration between attentional and sensorimotor areas, and improvements in selective and peripheral visual attention (Paulus, Marron, Sobera, & Ripoli, 2017). Boot and his colleagues (2008) explored similar variables in their work and found participants improved in task switching and visual tracking. In summary, evidence suggests video game players show improvements in selective attention, divided attention, and sustained attention. Finally, McDermott, Bavelier, and Green (2014) observed their research participants showed evidence of greater speed of processing and enhanced visual short-term memory when compared to a control group.

“Students learn better when they assume ownership of the process, take the initiative, and direct their own learning.”

Skill Builders

There are numerous studies that explore the relationship between problem solving and game play. After all, most games have a problem or challenge for the player to face and overcome. The researchers assessed their problem-solving ability by examining the types of cognitive, goal-oriented, game-oriented, emotional and contextual statements they made. They found that younger children seemed to create short-term goals as they played games, while older children examined the problem as a whole. (Blumberg, Ismailer, 2008) Well-designed, content-deep games supported in-depth learning, as well as developed investigative, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. (Clark, Tanner-Smith, Hostetler, Fradkin, & Polikov, 2017) Games are also ideal for skills acquisition and retention.

As for student achievement, many studies support that games contribute to academic success. They can increase scores on achievement tests, (Posso, 2016) they can improve learning achievement (Hwang, Wu, & Chen, 2012) (Sitzmann, 2011)

Learner Ownership and Agency

Students learn better when they assume ownership of the process, take the initiative, and direct their own learning. (Savery, 1998; Zimmerman & Schunk, 1989) In a literature review conducted by Nousiainen and Kankaanranta (2008), learners that succeeded through gameplay felt ownership in the final outcome, meaning they felt responsible for their learning and accomplishments.

Student agency refers to the degree of freedom and control that a student has to perform meaningful actions in a learning environment. Dalton (2000) reported that 56% of students who participate in online courses sensed a lack of interactivity; they were not active learners with the freedom of choice. Well-designed games, however, encourage students to adapt and design learning and teaching styles most suitable to them, which in turn leads to a more active role in learning. (Klopfer et al., 2009) Sawyer and colleagues experimented the impact of student agency on learning and problem-solving behavior in a game-based learning environment. They found that students showed significant learning gains when offered the freedom and control to learn on their own with some guidance. Game-based learning practitioners should allow learning to take place in an environment that provides freedom and ownership for learners.

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At Amplify, we are committed to the educational potential of learning through digital gameplay. Aqua is a new kind of reading curriculum in development by the Center for Early Reading at Amplify. It is a reading adventure that gives students practice in phonological awareness, decoding, vocabulary, and reading comprehension through games. Learn more.

Sources

Blumberg, F., & Ismailer, S. (2008). Children’s problem-solving during video game play. In F. C. Blumberg & S. S. Ismailer (Cochairs), What do children learn when playing video games? Symposium paper presented at American Psychological Association Annual Meeting, Boston, MA.

Boot, W., Kramer, A., Simons, D., Fabiani, M., & Gratton, G. (2008). The effects of video game playing on attention, memory, and executive control. Acta Psychologica 129, pp. 387–398.

Clark, D., Tanner-Smith, E., Hostetler, A., Fradkin, A., & Polikov, V. (2017). Substantial integration of typical educational games into extended curricula. Journal of the Learning Sciences.

Hwang, G., Wu, P., & Chen, C. (2012). An online game approach for improving students’ learning performance in web-based problem-solving activities. Computers & Education (59) 4. Pp. 1246–1256.

Ke, F. (2009). A qualitative meta-analysis of computer games as learning tools. In R.E. Ferdig (Ed.). Effective electronic gaming in education (Vol1, pp.1-32). Hersey, PA: Information Science Reference.

Klopfer, E., Osterweil, S., & Salen, K. (2009). Moving learning games forward. Cambridge, MA: The Education Arcade.

McDermott, A., Bavelier, D., & Green, S. (2014). Memory abilities in action video game players. Computers in Human Behavior 34, pp. 69–78.

Nousiainen, T., & Kankaanranta, M. (2008). Exploring children’s requirements for game-based learning environments. Advances in Human-Computer Interaction.

Paulus, M., Marron, E., Sobera, R., & Ripoli (2017). Neural basis of video gaming: A systematic review. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience.

Posso, A. (2016). Internet usage and educational outcomes among 15-year-old Australian students. International Journal of Communication.(10).

Savery, J. (1998). Fostering ownership with computer supported collaborative writing in higher education. In C.J. Bonk & K.S. King (Eds.), Electronic collaborators: Learner-centered Technologies for literacy, apprenticeship, and discourse (pp.103-127) Mahwah, NJ.: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Sawyer, R., Smith, A., Rowe, J., Azevado, R., & Lester, J. (2017). Is more agency better? The impact of student agency on Game-Based Learning. The IntelliMedia Group.

Schaaf, R. (2012). Does digital game-based learning improve student time-on-task behavior and engagement in comparison to alternative instructional strategies? Canadian Journal of Action Research,13(1), 50-64.

Schaaf, R., & Mohan, N. (2014). Making schools a game worth playing: Digital games in the classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA.| Corwin.

Sitzmann, T. (2011). A meta-analytical examination of the instructional effectiveness of computer-based simulation games. Personnel Psychology 64. pp. 489-528.

Thangagiri, B., & Naganathan, R., (2016). Online educational games-based learning in Disaster Management Education: Influence on educational effectiveness and student motivation. Eighth International Conference on Technology for Education.

Vogel, J., Vogel, D., Cannon-Bower, J., Bower, C., Muse, K., & Wright, M. (2006). Computing games and interactive simulations for learning: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 34(4), pp.229-243.

Wolfe, J. (1997). The effectiveness of business games in strategic management course work. Simulations & Gaming 28(4), pp. 360-376.

Yu, F., & Hsiao, H. (2012). Exploring the factors influencing learning effectiveness in Digital Game based Learning. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, (15) 3. pp. 240-250

Wouters, P., van Nimwegen, C., van Oostendorp, H., & van der Spek, E. D. (2013, February 4). A Meta-Analysis of the Cognitive and Motivational Effects of Serious Games. Journal of Educational Psychology. Advance online publication.

 

 

 

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Gaming Research Uncategorized

The Research Supporting Digital Gaming and Learning Part 1: The Gamer’s Brain

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By Ryan L. Schaaf

 

This post originally was posted here. Reposted with permission from Amplify Games.

Preface

There are literally thousands of research studies, books, web articles, and news reports examining the effectiveness of games during the learning process. Some of these sources are research-based, some are first hand experiences or accounts, while others are formed on opinions or even sophistry. The truth is the analysis of gaming’s efficacy during the learning process are still evolving.

As often as we witness the digital generation’s love of games and the amazing societal, technological, and cultural impact they usher in, there remains the need for evidence of their success as learning tools, or even learning environments.

Do playing games, both learning and commercial, both digital and non-digital, both long-form and short-form, promote learning? There is a substantial amount of research on gaming and learning – so much so that this post will be delivered in two parts. The first part, entitled The Gamer’s Brain, examines what scientists, researchers, and educators have observed about the relationship between digital gameplay and the human brain. The second part entitled The Gamer’s Gains: Evidence of Efficacy examines many of the recent studies and analyses that demonstrate the potential for learning with the use of digital games. The links and citations for each study, report, or data source will be listed below and linked at the end of each snippet.

The Gamer’s Brain

It is essential for educators and researchers to explore the human organ responsible for learning – the brain. Learning during the gaming experience provides information and experiences in a manner that promotes brain-based learning.

First, gameplay accesses many regions of the brain associated with learning. When a gamer is engaged in gameplay, they are receiving information through their eyes into their occipital lobes. This region of the brain is associated with visual perception, color recognition, object movement, reading and comprehension, and depth perception. Daphne Bavelier, professor of brain and cognitive sciences, notes that fast-paced, action games can retrain the visual cortex to gain a better understanding of the visual information it receives. (Achtman, Green, & Bavelier, 2008) Video game play also augments grey matter in brain areas crucial for spatial navigation, strategic planning, working memory, and motor performance. (Kuhn, Gleich, Lorenz, Lindenberger, & Gallinat, 2013)

As humans, we are all inherently visual learners (with the exception of individuals with visual disabilities). The human eyes are nature’s greatest cameras. They collect 72 gigabytes (the size of a computer hard drive in the early 2000’s) of information every second. Human eyes contain 70% of our body’s sensory receptors (Cartier-Wells, 2013), which allows them to process the meaning of images 60,000 times faster than that of text. (Burmark, 2002) The digital game experience uniquely accesses visual learners, because, in most games, it is the main method of information transfer to the player.

Additional human senses and brain regions are extensively accessed during digital gameplay. Information received or transmitted through sounds are processed in and routed through the temporal lobes, which are associated with auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and speech.

Digital games do an amazing job of transmitting high-quality, highly expressive, realistic, multisensory experiences—sight, sound, and touch (and likely in the near future smell and taste). They provide gamers with experiences more immersive than watching a video or listening to audio. Gamers are engaged in these virtual worlds and their appetites to learn and explore are incredibly ravenous.

In the past, the brain was believed to be composed of an unalterable, unchanging structure. However; the scientific community has discovered that repetitive experiences can alter the brain’s structure and rewire it.

“Neuroplasticity is the process of ongoing reorganization and restructuring of the brain in response to intensive inputs and constant stimulation” (Jukes, McCain & Crockett, 2010). Video games provide these repetitive situations and experiences across the different game types, platforms, and genres. They provide constant stimulation for students to learn from using multiple forms of sensory input such as auditory, visual, and kinesthetic. (Schaaf & Mohan, 2014)

The challenging nature of games also makes learning with them particularly rewarding. Dopamine, a neurotransmitter that is associated with intense pleasure, is released as a reward in response to conquering a challenge such as making a prediction, choice, or action, and receiving feedback that it was correct. Gamers want to repeat this neurotransmitter release, so they advance through more challenging experiences. Unfortunately, if a challenge is too easy, then the Dopamine release doesn’t occur, and the player loses interest in the game (Willis, 2011).

Digital games have the potential to provide powerful learning experiences to the gamer’s brain. They transmit visual, auditory, and even tactile information in a compelling manner, so more regions of the brain are accessed during gameplay. They provide information in a manner that helps to restructure (and even retrain) the human brain neurologically. Finally, gameplay offers the opportunities for the brain to reward perseverance, tenacity, and learning through conquering challenges with a pleasurable neurochemical release.

Sources

Achtman, R.L. & Green, C.S. & Bavelier, D. (2008). Video games as a tool to train visual skill. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience. 26. 435-46.

Burmark, L. (2002). Visual literacy: Learn to see, see to learn. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Cartier-Wells, A. (2013). The social revolution – Remember me.

Jukes, I., McCain, T., & Crockett, L. (2010). Understanding the digital generation: Teaching and learning in the new digital landscape. Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada: 21st Century Fluency Project.

Kuhn, S.,Gleich, T. , Lorenz, R., Lindenberger, U., & Gallinat, J. (2014). Playing Super Mario induces structural brain plasticity: Gray matter changes resulting from training with a commercial video game. Molecular Psychiatry (19). pp. 265–271.

Schaaf, R., & Mohan, N. (2014). Making schools a game worth playing: Digital games in the classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA.| Corwin.

Willis, J. (2011). Neuroscience insights from video game & drug addiction. Psychology Today.

 

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Gaming

Quantifying the Impact: An Interview with Dan Norton

Using digital gaming as an instructional strategy is being explored by many. Educators are attempting to leverage their students’ excitement to play digital games outside of school   by bringing them into the classroom. In this post, Joe Schmidt interviews Dan Norton, a founding partner and CCO at Filament Games. They discuss iCivics; a non-profit organization dedicated to reinvigorating civic learning through interactive and engaging learning resources. 

Screenshot of iCivics, produced by Filament Games
Screenshot of iCivics, produced by Filament Games

Original Source

Posted by: Ryan Schaaf

iCivics Teacher Council Member Joe Schmidt interviewed Dan Norton a founding partner and CCO at Filament Games who specializes in crafting educational game design documents and storyboards that originate from learning objectives. Here is their conversation on game based learning:

How did you get involved in creating games used for game based learning?

About nine years ago, I worked as an interactive designer at an online resource center in Madison that eventually partnered with the UW-Madison organization GLS (then called GAPPS).  That group was studying the effects of games and education and we got to work with them to get involved in game based learning. Combining what I had learned and my lifelong interest in games it was a natural fit.

Three of us saw an opportunity to make games that embodied the contemporary research about good games and learning, so we started Filament Games, and here we are today!

What does gamification in teaching mean to you?

I think as a term, it doesn’t just mean a development of reward system to what you are already doing.  I don’t believe that this [misconception] works and research tells us that just adding incentives doesn’t work.  If you are going to use games in the classroom, then you have to think about what you are adding as intrinsic rewards.  You have to develop ways of expressing learning objectives that have intrinsic values to them.  You can’t just add a reward to a boring lesson plan and expect it to work.  For example, with an egg drop activity, there are Newton’s laws and engineering  practices embedded in that activity, but there is a context with those objectives that allows students to be engaged and creative in the learning.  When you look deep enough into almost any lesson, you should be able to find the intrinsic motiving ideas for that lesson, that [motivator] can be tied to a gamified lesson plan.

What do you think are the benefits of using games to help students learn?

There are a bunch of them.  Games do a great job of helping more of the underserved students.  It is a different way to address literacy and hit different learning objectives. Filament looks to use games to help express: Identities– asking you to take on a role inside the game, allows different perspectives;Verbs– working towards a completion of a task; and System Thinking Rules and Principles– having to working within a set of rules.  These are all different ways that teachers are already looking to engage students.

How do you see game based learning evolving in the coming years?

I think what game based learning is good at is providing authentic assessments.  Games are the perfect way to assess learning objectives compared to taking a test.  In the future as we work towards more complicated assessment, I think that games will continue to evolve as the exemplar model of assessments that should be used.

What is your best example of how game based learning affected an individual/group/class?

Just about in every user test we do, there are always a couple students with a learning disorder or that traditionally underperform in the classroom and we see that they pull out all of the stops to play the game.  To try to pick just one is hard, because just about every time we have tested games, the students that seem to shine cover such a wide variety of student types.

How would you respond to someone that says, “They are not learning, they are just playing games”?

I would counter back that every game has value and the part of what we consider “fun” is just part of a learning cycle that takes place.  Games are naturally a learning engine.  When we no longer have fun, it is because we no longer find value with it.  Play is just an open learning environment and that is something that all living things do as part of a learning process.  The word “fun” is really just a code word for a learning in a game, and if that game is designed in such a way that the “fun” problems are aligned to learning objectives, we can create truly valuable experiences.

If you could tell teachers one thing about using iCivics games in their classroom, what would you say?

They shouldn’t just see iCivics as an arcade of cool Civics games, but rather as a robust and flexible curriculum that allows a great context for teaching civics far beyond the computer screen.

Joe (@madisonteacher) is currently in his tenth year of teaching and is a dedicated life-long learner that works to support social studies teachers in his district.  He is looking to change the world one student at a time, and continue to look for ways to connect students and classrooms to the world around them through a variety of learning experience.

 

 

 

Categories
Gaming

6 Ways To Find Video Games You Can Teach With

Digital games are being touted as instructional tools with incredible teaching in the classroom. Written by Ryan Schaaf and posted on March 15, 2014 via TeachThought, the article describes 6 strategies teachers, administrators and even parents can use to find potential digital games for learning. 

Minecraft: Image Courtesy of C. Schaaf
Minecraft: Image Courtesy of C. Schaaf

posted by:  Ryan Schaaf

Original Source

Many people, whether young or old, male or female, introverted or extroverted, love playing video games. Why is this form of media so enticing for such a wide range of people?

The constant feedback and reward, the visual and audio stimulation, the player interaction, the variety of genres and game types, the rich storylines, and the opportunities for competition and collaboration are just a few of the enticing reasons players come back for more.

The Video Game Phenomenon

By 2016, global video game sales are expected to exceed 80 billion dollars a year. In Apple’s App Store and Google Play, the #1 app category downloaded to mobile devices such as smartphones, tablets, and media players is games. Whether using video games as a learning tool or a digital babysitter, more parents are exposing their children to digital games at an earlier age.

If you visit a restaurant, grocery store, or shopping mall, then chances are you see more and more children using their parent’s devices for hands-on, brains-on gaming experiences.

Digital Games: Teacher-Approved

More and more educators are turning to video games to engage their students in hands-on, brains-on learning. The Joan Ganz Cooney Center in collaboration with BrainPOP published Teacher Attitudes about Digital Games in the Classroom back in 2012. The report summarized the results of a national survey of 500 K-8 teachers using digital games in their classroom. Some highlights from the survey data include:

* 70% of the teachers agreed that using digital games increases motivation and engagement with content and curriculum.

* 62% of teachers indicated games make it easier to differentiate lessons for the wide range of learners in their classroom.

* 60% of teachers observed that games foster more collaboration amongst students.

* Negative classroom experiences using digital games were below 10%.

Further evidence of positive teacher attitudes towards digital games is also present in the 2009 PBS report Digitally Inclined Teachers Increasingly Value Media and Technology. The report, summarizing the results of a national survey of almost 1,500 teachers, indicated teachers are making significant progress in adopting digital media in schools.

Teachers value many different types of digital media, with games and activities for student use in school topping the list at 65%. Despite their popularity with students and teachers, it is a struggle to find digital games relevant for instruction.

These six strategies might prove useful when finding instructional digital games.

6 Strategies To Find Video Games You Can Teach With

1. Google It

This might seem too good to be true, but in most cases teachers will hit pay dirt. Using a search engine, enter content-specific search terms to find browser-based games. Search terms like “probability interactive digital games” or “food chain interactive games online” produce a robust list for previewers to choose from. In many cases, these digital games are free.

2. Skim App Stores

The App Store and Google Play now contain over 1 million apps each and the number is growing exponentially. More and more educational gaming apps are added each day. With BYOD initiatives and the popularity of tablets in schools, this strategy can provide an assortment of educational games for students to use in class.

Making it a habit to skim these sections, and even following a service like Humble Bundle, can be an easy way to find new games as well.

3. Use PC Platforms: Steam, Green Man Gaming, And More

The 1980s provided the first PC games. Where in the World is Carmen SanDiego, Number Munchers, and The Oregon Trail were just some of the digital games from the dawn of the personal computer. Nowadays, there are many popular titles specifically designed to be instructional; targeting specific learning objectives. Despite the decline in desktop computer sales over the years, personal computer games are still immensely popular and relatively easy to install and use with students in an individual, small-group, or whole-group manner.

4. Use Accessible, Popular Video Games

This might be a hard sell for some administrators, but it has been done before with success. In 2010, Learning and Teaching Scotland in partnership with Futurelab conducted surveys, interviews, and observations of console gaming in the classroom.

The study found students and teachers enjoyed the learning experiences present in game-based learning and offered opportunities to engage in activities that enhance learning. Although there are many obstacles to implementing console gaming in the classroom (namely content, violence in gaming, and money), students will be enthralled with the amazing graphics and immersive storylines present in professionally-produced commercial games.

5. Use An RSS Reader

This is a great way to discover new content, and can take just a few minutes a day. Set up your feedly (or other RSS reader) to grab articles from rockpapershotgun, ign, joystiq, and others to get a constant feed of info on video games that you can skim, save, and delete at your leisure.

6. Word Of Mouth

The power of sharing is alive and well in the field of education.

Teachers enjoy sharing new strategies, tools, and instructional approaches with others, because the pay-off of helping colleagues and/or students succeed is rewarding. Using new tools or instructional materials invigorates the classroom and the practice of teaching. Due to the abundance of digital games and the unlimited potential for teacher creativity in lesson planning, ideas will only spread and evolve.

Conclusion

The digital generations go home and tune in to a wide variety of media. Schools should not be a place they turn-off their digital lives. Educators will fail to reach them in the digital and media-rich reality they are growing up in. It is essential to use the tools of the digital generations to stay relevant in their ever-changing, never-static existences.

Digital games can be a tool with limitless potential for learning.